





, "^ 












-n^-o^ 













THE 

HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION 

OP THE 

Bridgeport High School. 

A PAPER 



PREPARED FOR THE 



THIRD ANNUAL REPORT 

OF THE 

CONNECTICUT STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, 

BY 

WARREN R. BRIGGS, 

Architect, Bridgeport, Conn. 



BRIDGEPORT, CONN,: 

THE STANDARD ASSOCIATION, PRINTERS. 

1881. 







FRONT ELEVATION 



^ 




THE HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF THE 

BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL 

BUILDING. 



BY WARREN R. BRIGGS, ARCHITECT, BRIDGEPORT, CONN. 



In no department of public or ijrivate works is there such 
vital necessity for a perfect system of hygiene as in the plan- 
ning, construction, drainage and ventilation of our school 
buildings. At no time in our lives are we so susceptible to 
disease as in our school days. The rapid growth of the child, 
the mental strain that our forcing system of education re- 
quires, and the bad sanitary condition of many homes, all 
tend to weaken the constitution at this period, and render it 
particularly liable to the contraction of disease. The neces- 
sity of abating, as far as possible, and ultimately extermina- 
ting, what is known as preventable disease, has become of 
paramount importance. The alarming spread of malarial dis- 
eases and malignant epidemics among children in various parts 
of the country, I attribute, in the majority of cases, to crim- 
inal carelessness in sanitary matters. Miserable construction, 
poor sewerage, bad plumbing, and no system of ventilation, 
combine to produce among the poor classes hot-beds for the 
nursing of the germs of pestilential disease, that are then 
conveyed by the children to our school-houses. Much has 
been accomplished by our State and local boards of health to 
remedy this evil, but there still remains a vast amount of work 
to be done. Stringent legislation is needed iii all matters 
pertaining to building, and proper officers appointed by the 
Governor to see that the laws are enforced are required in all 

*Kepriiite(i by courtesy of the authoi i and tho State Board of Health. 



8 HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 

the larger cities of our State. When this is done we may hope 
to see the erection of the miserable shams, that greedy specula- 
tors and unscrupulous landlords now burden us with, stopped. 
So long as they enjoy the license which the present laws allow 
them, we can hope for no improvement. 

The school-house, where the child spends from four to six 
hours each day, demands our direct attention. The majority 
of the pupils in our public schools come from the poorer clas- 
ses, and are, as a rule, none too cleanly in their personal hab- 
its ; coming from homes which have none of the luxuries and 
barely the necessities of life, they are in no condition to be 
subjected to either excessive heat or extreme cold. Foul air 
and poor ventilation they have in plenty at their homes, and 
Ave should endeavor in the school room to supply them Avith 
pure air, uniform temperature, plenty of sunlight, cheerful- 
ness, refinement and comfort ; our buildings should be so 
planned as to combine all of these requirements. 

Dr. Lincoln, in his admirable paper recently published in 
Buck's Hygiene, has plainly told us what a school building 
should be, and the writer has endeavored, as far as lay in his 
power, to produce a building that shall be a model of its kind. 
He has not only labored long and faithfully himself, but has 
consulted the leading experts of the country in regard to the 
heating, ventilation, and general sanitary arrangements of the 
building, and has always received from them their hearty ap- 
proval, coupled with the remark : "We have frequently 
called the attention of the public, in our articles, to what a 
building should be, and we are glad to see at last a building 
planned in accordance with our views." 

In all the writer's efforts he has been most ably seconded 
by the Board of Education of this city, and more especially 
by the members of the Board who comprise the Building Com- 
mittee. The}' are, to a man, whole-souled, enlightened, Chris- 
tian gentlemen, who have the welfare of the public in view, 
and although, they have been severely criticised and wrong- 
fully assailed, they have unflinchingly put their shoulders to 
the wheel, and worked with a zeal that cannot be too highly 
commended to secure for the city a building that can be point- 
ed to with pride, when finished. 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. V 

The site of the new building is admirable ; situated almost 
in the geographical center of the city, in one of its best lo- 
calities, far removed from all noise, dust, or odors arising 
from factories, stables, or the like, being completely isolated 
on all sides, having no large buildings or trees to shadov^ it, 
and standing within a few feet of the highest ground within 
the city limits, it presents natural advantages that have never 
been surpassed, and seldom equalled. The lot has an actual 
elevation of 61.0" above the average high water in the harbor. 
It has a frontage on two streets of 200', and an average depth 
of 256 feet, the. lot running from street to street. Not only 
are great advantages obtained by this frontage, in ease of ac- 
cess to the building, but thus are secured unexceptional facil- 
ities for the disposal of sewerage, there being a twelve-inch 
main running down the hill in the center of both streets ; in 
these streets the fall is very rapid, between four and six feet in 
every hundred. 

The principal front (there is no rear) of the building faces 
Congress street, which, running nearly east and west, gives it 
a southwesterly exposure. This arrangement secures in every 
room in the building, during a portion of the day, sunlight in 
abundant quantities. 

The building is designed to be constructed of brick, with 
local stone foundations and underpinnings, brown-stone caps, 
sills and trimmings, exterior steps to be of granite, and roofs 
of slate. It will consist of three stories, viz., the ground floor, 
first story and second story. It contains a total of fourteen 
school and recitation rooms, a chemical laboratorj^, recejotion- 
room, office, library, janitor's room, work and boiler-room, be- 
side the water-closets. 

The height of all rooms in the building, with the exception 
of the High School room, is 13.0", the High School room hav- 
ing a height of 28.0" in center, and 21.0" on the sides. 

The writer does not consider it necessary to go into a de- 
tailed explanation of each floor-plan, but will simply call at- 
tention to some of the novel features and general construction 
of the building. The plans themselves illustrate sufficiently 
the general position and arrangement of rooms and halls. 



10 HYaiENIC CONSTEUCTION OP 

The gToiind floor is located two steps, or about fifteen 
inches, below the grade of the lot. This, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, would be considered an objection, on the plea of 
dampness, but the floor and side walls have been so carefully 
prepared that the rooms situated on this floor are expected to 
be the driest in the building. 

In the first place, the ground itself is unusually free from 
dampness ; ample jDrovision has, however, been made for the 
removal of all surface-water by the introduction of six inch 
drain pipes, laid with open joints, in trenches filled with loose 
stone, the stones covering the top of the pipe a few inches. 
These pipes run all around the building, just outside of the 
foundation wall, and are then carried to the manholes, where 
they are connected with the main sewer above the running- 
trap. 

The ground under the floor of the school rooms situated on 
the ground-floor is first cemented 2|- inches with the best 
Rosendale cement, and then covered with two coats of as]Dhal- 
tum. This asphalt is put on hot, and not only covers the en- 
tire bottom, but runs up on all outside and inside walls to the 
height of the copings, and is then carried across the top of 
all interior and exterior walls, forming an impenetrable pro- 
tection against dampness. Not only is the ground-floor and 
the walls to the height of the coping treated in this manner, 
but all outside walls in the building — they are all coated to 
their full height and width with two coats before they are fur- 
red. This I believe to be a more perfect safeguard against 
dampness than the common hollow wall. 

STAIRCASES. 

The staircases consist of four flights ; two at either end of 
the building. While being convenient and easy of access 
from all parts of the building, they are yet sufficiently isolated 
to be free from the usual objection of noise, and are moreover 
absolutely fireproof. They are constructed with iron treads 
and risers, securely fastened to string-pieces, also of iron 
that are bolted directly to the brick enclosing-walls. The 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 11 

top surfaces of all treads are to be covered with rubber, 
to prevent slipping. All platforms and landings are to be 
formed of granite slabs 8" thick. The stairs are formed with 
two "runs" for each flight, with landings midway, this being 
done to secure an easy ascent. The stairs are all 5' 0" wide ; 
all landings 5' 0" X 11' 0", risers, 7^", treads 11"; they are well 
lighted at all points by ample windows placed on each land- 
ing. An iron hand-rail, bolted to the walls, runs around on 
all sides at a suitable height There is no wood-finish of any 
kind, with the exception of door and window casings, in the 
staircase halls. The sidewalls are all of face-brick laid in 
black mortar with struck joints. These walls, when hard, are 
to be treated with a coat of liquid filler, and then varnished 
in two coats, thus forming a perfectly hard surface, not easily 
marred or soiled. 

HAT AND CLOAK ROOMS. 

In all our school buildings of the present day, the hat and 
cloak rooms have been more or less objectionable, especially 
in wet weather. Children coming in with wet garments hang 
them in narrow rooms, poorly heated and -lighted, and usually 
unventilated, where they are allowed to steam in a close and 
unwholsome atmosphere during the session, and at its close 
are put on by the child in a worse condition than when taken 
off. An attempt has been made to remedy this evil in the 
construction of this building. In the main halls, which are 
spacious, and which are to be heated and ventilated in the 
same manner as the school-rooms, have been placed the hat 
and cloak rooms — two for each school-room. These rooms, in- 
stead of being lathed and plastered in the usual manner, are 
simply partitions of ash 8' 0" high, entirely open at the top, and 
so arranged that only the supporting-posts run down to the 
floor. The portion of the jDartition between the posts is kept 
4" from the floor, giving a free circulation of air throughout 
the rooms. Damp or uncleanly clothing hung in these rooms 
during the session instead of being filled with foulness arising 
from the confined atmosphere will become purified by the 
constant circulation of pure air, — the impure air being dis- 
posed of through the main hall ventilators. 



12 HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 



All eminent writers on School Hygiene have called attention 
and dwelt with much stress upon the importance of abund- 
ant light properly distributed in our school rooms. That the 
light should come from the left side and be introduced at 
nearly right angles to the floor-line is an established rule 
among those versed in school matters. Upon the actual 
amount of glass required by each pupil authorities differ. Dr. 
Lincoln states that the size of the windows, taken collectively, 
should equal at least one-sixth of the floor space. Cohn, the 
German writer, requires one-fifth, or 30 inches to the foot. 
Some of the highest authorities require from 300 to 350 square 
inches of glass for each pupil ; this coincides very nearly with 
Cohn, but Dr. Lincoln does not consider that, in our school- 
rooms that have a greater depth than those referred to by the 
above-mentioned authorities, the amount mentioned by them 
is enough. 

In the Bridgeport school-house the window-stools have all 
been kept 4' 0" from the floor, and the window openings are 
carried up to within one foot of the ceilings. The size of the 
windows, taken collectively, equals, in the corner rooms, one- 
sixth of the floor-space, allowing 50 pupils per room, and pro- 
vides 434 square inches of glass per pupil. In the middle 
rooms, the floor-space is seven times that of the glass surface, 
and, allowing 50 pupils per room, will give to each 403 square 
inches of glass. In the corner rooms the seats are so arranged 
that the light comes always from the back and left — in the 
middle rooms it comes only from the left. 

In the High School room, the glass surfaces, taken collec- 
tively, equal one-sixth the floor-space ; allowing 200 pupils for 
this room, will give to each pupil 384 square inches of glass 
surface. 

FLOOR, AND CUBIC FEET OF SPACE ALLOWED EACH PUPIL. 

In the corner rooms, allowing 50 pupils per room, each 
pupil will have 20.50 square feet of floor-space, and 266 cubic 
feet of air. In the middle rooms each pupil will have 21 
square feet of floor-space, and 273 cubic feet of air. In the 



BKIDGEPOKT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 13 

High School, allowing 200 pupils, each pupil will have 17 
square feet of space, and 441 cubic feet of air. While the 
floor-space in the High School room is somewhat smaller than 
the highest authorities require, the cubic contents are largely 
in excess of the most exacting, and it must be taken into con- 
sideration that this room is seldom occupied by the entire 
number of pupils for more than a few moments at a time, as 
the recitation-rooms used in connection with it are, during the 
school session, in constant use. It should also be remember- 
ed that the number of pupils calculated for each room is their 
extreme capacity. It is to be hoped that no teacher will be 
burdened with more than 44 pupils, although I have based my 
calculations on a larger number. 

THE WATER CLOSETS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. 

The demands of modern civilization require that we provide, 
either within our school-buildings or in close proximity to 
them, water-closets for the use of the pupils. There can be 
no doubt but that much harm is done to children, in many 
schools in our State, from the bad sewerage and careless ar- 
rangement of water-closets. It has been said that privies 
placed under the same roof which shelters the school should 
not exist, for a moment. I do not consider that this rule 
should be simply applied to privies, but that the groups of 
water closets that are required in all our large schools should 
come under the same head ; they should in no case be placed 
directly under school rooms in the basement, as contamina- 
tion will surely follow sooner or later. They should be, if not 
wholly, at least partially isolated from the building, and those 
for the boys removed as far as possible from those for the 
girls. The teachers' water-closets can, I think with safety, be 
placed in the building, that is if they are carefully ventilated ; 
these water-closets will be used understandingly and are not 
liable to become unwholsome, but the pupils' closets, even 
with the most careful watching, are liable to become foul from 
the habit so prevalent among children (I wish I could say that 
the habit was confined to children alone !) of making the clos- 
et a common receptacle for all kinds of garbage. 




6T«wft» IN Watbk CJ.o«ct» 






.5 a. 



S/lf \Si"g8aJ 





BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 15 

In the Bridgeport school-house, the closets for the pupils 
have been placed at either end of the building under the en- 
trance steps, far removed from each other, securing a com- 
plete isolation of the sexes. They are also completely shut 
off from the main school building by the intervening staircase 
halls ; by this arrangement, ease of access is obtained, com- 
bined Avith complete isolation, obviating the danger of con- 
taminating the main school-building. 

The water closets have been constructed with a view to hav- 
ing as little wood-work as is possible with the requirements 
of comfort. The main floor is to be of blue-stone flagging 4" 
thick, laid in Portlfind cement ; this is laid on a gentle in- 
cline to a certain point, to secure a good drip or wash from 
all points of the room. The side-walls are of brick, treated 
in the same manner as has been before mentioned in the de- 
scription of the en trance -halls. The ceilings will be formed 
by the bottom of the granite slabs that are used for the floors 
of the vestibule, porch and outer halls. The casings, doors, 
and seats for the closets comprise the entire wood-work: 
these are of ash and are treated to a coat of filler and then 
varnished in two coats. The partition between each hopper is 
to be of slate 1^" thick, 7' 0' high by 2' 6" broad. These slate 
partitions are held in position by iron floor and wall-pieces 
and caps of the same material (see accompanying drawings). 
The floor upon which the hoppers stand is raised one step 
above the main floor of the closet (see drawing), and is also 
composed of blue-stone flagging 4" thick, a hole being cut 
through this stone for the outlet of the hopper. The closet 
that is intended to be used is the Hellyer Short Artizan Hop- 
per. This closet combines more good points, in the writer's 
opinion, than any at present known to him. Its chief point 
of excellence is its simplicity of working, and the fact that it 
is entirely of earthen-ware. There are no pans, valves, or 
plungers to become foul or get out of order : it is, in fact, an 
earthern hopper of improved shape, fed by a continuous tank 
to which is attached for each bowl a serving-box. When the 
seat is occupied, by a simple device a valve is raised, and the 
serving-box filled with water from the tank, at the same time 
a small stream is permitted to trickle into the hopper, wetting 



16 HYGIENIC CONSTETJCTION OF 

the sides and preventiug the adhesion of excretion to the bowl. 
"When the seat is relieved of its weight, the valve before re- 
ferred to is closed, another one opened and the contents of 
the serving-box (some three gallons) suddenly discharged 
through a large pipe connected with the flushing rim into the 
bowl of the hopper, carrying all solid matter through the trap, 
As I have said before, these hoppers, both bowl and trap, are 
of white earthen-ware, they are to be securely bolted to the 
blue-stone and left entirely open and exposed to the view. 
The seat is supported by the slate partitions, on which are 
bolted slate cleats. The chain operating the service-box and 
the feed-jDipe are both enclosed in an iron pipe, so as to be 
completely inaccessible to the pupils. 

The tank and service-boxes are of iron, painted. Directly 
under the platform on which the hoppers stand, there is to be 
constructed a man-hole trench, to be built of brick, coated with 
asphalt ; the top is formed of the blue-stone that the hoppers 
rest upon. This man-hole is 2' 0" broad by 3' 6" high, and is 
large enough to permit of a man crawling through it to in- 
spect the pipes. This trench is to have an iron register at 
one end for the admission of pure air, and at the other is con- 
nected directly with the ventilating shaft. In this trench are 
to run the soil-pipes from the hoppers ; these are to consist of 
6" cast-iron pipes with 4" Y joints for each hopper. These 
pipes are caulked with moulten led and then covered with two 
coats of asphaltum to prevent rust. By the arrangement of 
this trench the soil pipe and its connections are always acces- 
sible ; even should a leak occur in any of its joints that was 
not at once discovered, the stench arising from such a cause 
would not enter the building but pass off through the venti- 
lating flue. The urinals are placed along the inside division 
walls ; they are to be constructed with slate backs and troughs 
put together in the most approved manner, the trough being 
supported by brass brackets ; the back is arranged with a neat 
cap of slate, under which is run a water-pipe perforated with 
small holes so as to secure the complete wetting of the entire 
back at all times. Underneath this trough, in the floor, there 
is another trough, the bottom and one side being of blue-stone 
and the other formed by the slate back ; this trough has an 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 17 

inclined surface and is intended to carry off all drippings or 
slopping that may occur in or about the closets or urinals. 
At its outlet it is trapped with a deep running trap and then 
connected with the main drain. This arrangement will enable 
the janitor, at the close of each day's session, to thoroughly 
wash down with a hose the entire room. 

Upon the inside walls of the rooms that are occupied by the 
closets have been placed ventilating flues, two for each of the 
closets. These flues are of large size, and run up through the 
biiilding, entirely independent of all other flues, to a point 
far above the mam cornice-line Through these flues the ex- 
tension of the soil-pipes of each section of hoppers is carried, 
and there is also connected with the flues a vent-pipe, run- 
ning under the seats just above the trap of each hopper. 
Lastly, the trench in which the soil-pipe runs is also connected. 
The lower portions of the flues, that is, those parts of them 
that come directly in the rooms occupied by the water-closets, 
are enlarged into a circular form (see plans), this being done to 
permit of the introduction of a small stove in the bottom of each 
flue, and this stove is to be kept running always, both winter 
and summer, as the writer believes that this is the only way 
to secure a steady uj)-current at all times under the varying 
conditions of the atmosphere. The brick-work around the 
stoves is laid in open work (see sketch), and on the inside cov- 
ered with wire netting. There is also an iron door provided 
for each flue. By this arrangement many points are gained: 
not only are the hoppers and soil-pipes perfectly ventilated, but 
any stench arising in the rooms is quickly removed by the 
strong up-current through the flues. Again, in the winter, 
the stoves, two in each room, will be ample for heating pur- 
poses, while in summer, by a simple device, the direct radia- 
tion is shut off from the room, and throAvn entirely up the flue. 

The teachers' water-closets, situated two on each floor, are 
to be of the same pattern as those described, fitted up in the 
same manner as the ordinary house-closets, but with special 
reference to their construction and ventilation. 

]SfoTE. — The soil-pipes for the teachers' closets in the main 
building are laid in a trench in the same manner as described 
above ; the main drain runs into a man-hole just outside of 



18 HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 

the building, where the three lines of soil-pipes (one from 
each section of hoppers, and one from the teachers' closets) 
are brought together just above a deep running-trap. This 
man-hole is covered with a blue-stone flag, is carefully venti- 
lated, and easy of access. There is also connected, just above 
the trap in this man-hole, the rain-water drains connected with 
the leaders from roof, so as to secure during every rain a 
thorough scouring- out of all the drains and their connec- 
tions. 

The reader, by studying the accompanying plans and 
sketches, will be enabled to readily understand the general 
arrangement and working of this system. 

HEAT AND VENTILATION. 

It is generally admitted, on all sides, that the most practical, 
ecojiomical, and surest way of heating our buildings, at ihe 
present day, is steam. Granting that steam is to be our me- 
dium, it next becomes a question of how it shall be used. 
There are, at this writing, two methods in general use, these 
being known respectively as the direct and indirect systems. 
The direct system means the placing of radiators or circula- 
tion-pipes in each and every room required to be heated. The 
indirect system consists in placing all the pipes or radiators 
in boxes in the basement. Pure, cold air is brought into these 
boxes, and by passing through the coils of heated steam-pipes 
is warmed to the degree required. The heat generated in 
the boxes is then conveyed to the various rooms through 
tubes or pipes, in the same way that heat is usually con- 
ducted from our hot-air furnaces. Both systems have many 
strong advocates, but as far as the writer's investigations and 
researches have led him, he has found, among men that have 
simply the heating of a room in view, the direct system in fa- 
vor; but among those who have not only the actual heating, 
but the supplying of the room with fresh, pure air at all times, 
the indirect system is invarably adopted. From the personal 
investigations and practical experiments the writer has made 
from time to time, he is convinced that far better results can 
be obtained by this method than by any now known to him. 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 



19 



It has therefore been adopted in the new building for this 
city. It may be said in objection to this system that the 
amount of fuel required to heat a given amount of space is 




ColdAir.Inlet 



JPi'a 1 



largely in excess of that required by the direct plan ; this is 
in a measure true, but not to the extent supposed. Again, it 
has been said that it is impossible to heat exposed rooms by 
the indirect plan, without an enormous apparatus. This also 
is a mistake, for neither is an extravagant use of fuel nor a 



20 



HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 



gigantic apparatus required, if the apparatus is properly ar- 
ranged and uaderstandinghj handled. The trouble has been 
not from the inability to produce heat, but from the extraor- 
dinary loss of heat, this being occasioned in many cases by 
the position of the introductory flues, and in other cases by 
that of the out-going ventilating-ducts. It should be our aim 
to utilize every particle of heat entering the room before we 
allow it to escape ; it is certainly folly to bring in vast quan- 
tities of pure, warmed air at the floor-level of a room, and 




send it out with equal rapidity at the ceiling-level, without 
having traversed the room, outside of an almost direct line 
drawn from the incoming to the outgoing register ; yet in 
many cases our registers are so arranged that it is impossible 
to get any different results. 

I have before said that there is a general unity of opinion 
among experts as to the feasibility of indirect heating, but in 
regard to the placing of the heating surfaces in the cellar, and 
the position of the incoming and outgoing registers, there is 
a wide diversity of opinion. 

I shall endeavor briefly to describe some of the princij)al 
methods in common use, and the objections that I have to 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 



21 



them, before describing the system adopted in the Bridgeport 
school-building. First, the placing of the coil-boxes in the 
basement, on the outer walls under the rooms to be heated 
(Fig. 1), and the introduction of the warmed air at the floor 
and its removal at the ceiling-level upon the opposite side of 
the room. The objection that T have to this system are : 

1. That in a building like the Bridgeport school there would 
have to be placed in the basement at least six separate coil- 
boxes for the generation of heat, arranged one under each 
room : that by placing these boxes in the basement rooms the 




Fic 3 



rooms are rendered entirely unfit for school purposes, and their 
utility for play-room greatly crippled. 

2. That by placing these boxes far away from the center of 
the building, where the boilers are presumably located, a large 
amount of additional piping becomes necessary throughout the 
basement. 

3. The boxes being placed on the outer walls of the build- 
ing, there is danger of the pipes freezing ; constant watching 
and attention is required to prevent this and to insure their 
proper working. 

4. That the introduction-ducts or flues running up the outer 
exposed walls of the building lose a great deal of heat by 



22 



HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 



their proximity to the cold ; that this loss of heat cannot be 
wholly obviated even by the most expensive construction ; that 




Xie^ 




a large addition to the actually necessary heating surface is 
required to overcome this loss of heat, caused by the exposed 
position of the flues. 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 



23 



Lastly : That the air entering ripon the outer wall at the 
floor, and being removed on the inner wall at the ceiling-level, 
does not benefit the occupants of the room as it should. The 
action of the air as it enters is rapidly upward to the ceiling, 
where it stratifies, then along its surface to the outlet, as in- 
dicated in Fig. 2. The entering air is warm and liglit, and 
naturally rises and flows across the top of the room to the 
nearest ovitlet. The foul air of the room, being heavy with 
impurities, remains at the bottom, becoming constantly more 
contaminated. There is no doubt a certain amount of radia- 
tion or mixing going on, but the gieat bulk of the pure 




warmed air entering the room takes the short cut across it 
and up the ventilating-duct, as shown in Fig. 2. This action 
of the warm air occasions, as may be readily seen, an enor- 
mous loss of heat, without accomplishing the very points aimed 
at, the utilization of every particle of heat, before it is allow- 
ed to escape, and the thorough mixing of the pure incoming 
air with the air already in the room. If any one doubts the 
correctness of the action of air as herein described, let him 
fill the incoming flue with smoke, that can be readily seen, 
and watch its course as it enters, flows upward and outward, 
and see where the great mass of it goes. The dotted lines on 



24 



HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 



these sketches indicate the breathing point of a person sitting. 
It may be well to explain that in the experiments that I have 
made, the outlets have been at least Uoice as large as the inlets, 
and that there has always been heat in the outgoing flues to 
produce a strong up-current, as I believe this to be the only 
sure way to produce a constant outward flow of air. In Fig. 
3, the outgoing flue is in the same position, but the incoming- 
flue has been raised about two-thirds of the way towards the 
ceiling. In Fig. 4, the flues have been placed on about the same 
level, but with no better results. In Fig. 5, the outgoing flue 




le.cy 



has been placed at the floor Avith the results shown in the 
sketch. In Fig. 6, both flues are at the floor-level, with better 
results than have yet been obtained, but still far from satisfac- 
tory. I have thus tried to show the general action of in- 
coming and outgoing currents of air by the placing of the 
introduction -flues on the outer walls, and the outlets on the 
inner. The second method in general use is the placing of the 
coil-boxes upon the inner wall, and the removal of the foul air 
at the opposite or outer side of the rooms. I consider the 
placing of the coil-boxes on the inner Avail a great improve- 
ment on the other method, as by this plan they are centi-alized, 
extensive piping is saved, and the danger of freezing obviated. 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 25 

The placing of the exhaust-flues on the opposite side of the 
room I believe to be open to the same objections that I have 
described in the first method. The action of the hot aij', 
from the points where it is introduced toward the various out- 
lets, is the same as in the sketches already shown, and will be 
readily understood by the reader. 

In the Bridgejport school the coil boxes for the heating of 
the various rooms have all been placed in the main ventilatiug 
shafts in the center of the building, and the air conveyed from 
them through these shafts to the rooms by means of metal 
tubes. The air enters the inner coiner of the room about 
eight feet from the floor, the corner being clipped (see plans) 
so as to form a flat surface for the register-opening ; under- 
neath the register the space is utalized for a closet for the use 
of the teacher. The outgoing flue has been placed directly 
under the platform, which is located in the same corner as the 
introduction flue. This platform measures 6'X12', and is sup- 
plied with casters, so that it can be moved at any time it is 
necessary to clean under it. Its entire lower edge is kept 
about 4" from the floor, to give a full circulation of air under it 
at all points. The action of the incoming air is rapidly upward 
and outward, stratifying as it goes towards the cooler outer 
walls, thence flowing down their surfaces to the floor and back 
across the floor to the outgoing register on the inner corner 
of the room. By this method all the air entering is made to 
traverse with a circular motion (see Fig. 7) the entire room, 
before it reaches the exhaust-shaft, and there is a constant 
movement and mixing of the air in all parts of the room con- 
tinually going on. All the heat entering is utilized, and I 
believe that if the sufTply and exhaust-flues are properly bal- 
anced as to size, that there can be a very small loss of heat. 

The inlets are all intended to be large, and the flow of air 
through them moderate and steady. The air is not intended 
to be heated to a very high temperature ; the large quantity 
introduced is expected to keep the thermometer at about 68 ° 
at the breathing-level The school-rooms contain on an aver- 
age about 13,000 feet of air, or 260 cubic feet per pupil. It 
is proposed to supply each pupil with 30 cubic feet of air each 
minute, or 1,800 cubic feet per hour. Allowing 50 pupils to 



26 



HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 



each room, this will necessitate the introduction of 90,000 
cubic feet of air into the room each hour, and will change the 




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air of the room 6.92 times within the hour, or once in about 
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BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 27 

of 30 ° in the temperature. In tlie exhaust flues there are 
placed coils to produce a strong up-current at all times ; 
heat is also obtained from radiation from the introduction and 
boiler-flues, -which run through the foul-air shafts. 

Trouble has always been found in regulating the supply of 
warmed air obtained by the indirect system, owing to the in- 
ability to control the heating surfaces. The usual AVMy of con- 
structing the apparatus has been to place in the coil-boxes 
sufficient steam-pij^e to heat the room in the coldest weather. 
The pure, cold air passing over the pipes becomes heated to 
the desired temperature, and is then carried to the rooms ; 
this answers very well during the coldest weather, but as the 
Aveather moderates and less heat is required, the only way to 
regulate it has been to close the registers. This not only 
lowers the temperature of the room, but shuts off the supply 
of pure air entering. This fault has been remedied in the 
Bridgeport school-house as follows : The heating surface for 
each room is inclosed in separate cases or jackets (see Fig. 8) 
of metal, and are then subdivided into five sections, so ar- 
ranged that any number of sections or the whole may be used 
at pleasure, — that is to say, that any one, two, or three parts 
may be used at discretion. ' In extreme cold weather the 
whole five sections are in use ; in moderate weather two or 
three, and when a small amount of heat is required, only one. 
By this plan the supply of pure air remains always the same, 
but the degree to which it is heated is changed by the opening 
or closing of a valve. (See sketch.) 

The arrangement of all the heating and ventilating appara- 
tus in the center of the building renders it convenient and 
easy to manage, economical in its construction, and effective 
in working. The advantage is also obtained of having all 
speaking tubes, call-bells, and water-pipes run through the 
ventilating-shafts, where they are always accessible, as each 
shaft is provided with an iron ladder. This system has not 
only been introduced into each room, but into the halls as 
well. There are placed, moreover, in the halls foot-warm- 
ers, that are indicated on the plans. These warmers are 
simply steam-pipes encased in tin boxes arranged between the 
floor joists ; the pipes being packed in sand to temper the heat, 



28 HYGIENIC CONSTRUCTION OF 

and are covered at the floor-level with clieckered iron plates 
set flush Avith the floor. The tin cases referred to are water- 
tight and have a drij)-pipe running down to the boiler-room, 
so that in case of a leak no damage may be done to the build- 
ing. 

The boiler-room floor is sunk some six feet below the level 
of the ground floor to insure a drip of all return-pipes from 
the coils. The cold-air inlets are on four sides of the build- 
ing, the openings being about eight feet from the ground ; 
these inlets are connected so that, whatever way the wind may 
be, a supply of pure cold air is always assured. 

I have thus far spoken only of winter heating and ventila- 
ting ; for summer ventilation I believe that there are no bet- 
ter inlets for the air than the windows. There are many de- 
vices that may be arranged in them that are simple and effec- 
tive. It is not necessary to describe them here. The outlets, 
however, need a brief description ; it is intended not only to 
use the outlet under the platform, but by a simple device the 
incoming register for warm air in winter is made to connect 
with the main outlet in summer, so that two outlets are pro- 
vided during the warmer months. The upgoing current in 
the ventilating shafts is maintained in summer, as well as in 
winter, by heat ; there being placed at the bottom of each 
shaft a stove, which is to be used constantly when the boilers 
are not in use, insuring an equally strong up-current in sum- 
mer as in winter. 

I would say in conclusion that many interesting experiments 
have been made and important facts established. These ex- 
periments have principally been made with a model of about 
one-sixth the capacity of the school-rooms. They have always 
resulted most satisfactorily, and have proved to the writer the 
correctness of the jjrinciples herein advanced against the ob- 
jections commonly raised that heat brought into the room on 
the inner walls will not sufficiently warm the outer walls. He 
would say that in every test yet made the registration of care- 
fully graded thermometers has been from 1 to 2 degrees warm- 
er near the outer wall than near the inner, showing conclu- 
sively that the flow of heated air is rapidly towards cool 
surfaces, and that if its volume is as it should be it will coun- 



BRIDGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 29 

teract the cold radiating from the outer walls and render the 
temperature of the air in their immediate vicinity comfortable. 
Many other interesting facts have been established, and much 
useful data obtained, but I have neither the time nor the space 
here to describe them. I have purposely omitted in this 
paper all figures not actually necessary, aiming to make it a 
simple statement of the writer's views, fortified by the results 
of actual experiments. If any should desire more minute de- 
tails than are here given, by communicating with the writer 
he will willingly furnish all the information required, or should 
any be interested enough to come to this city, he will be 
pleased to go through with them some of the experiments 
here mentioned. 

The building has been described throughout as it was de- 
signed to be built by the architect ; some modifications have 
been found necessary, however, during the progress of the 
work. 



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